AP Psychology chap2
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"Psychology Themes and Variations" Wayne Weiten
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develop explanations and mental process
Goal of psychology
Reliability: the consistency or dependability of behavioral data resulting from psychological testing or experimental research
Validity: information produced by research or testing accurately measures the psychological variable or quality
explanations need to be reliable and valid
Requirements
explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observation and predicts behaviors or events
Theories: findings based on solid empirical studies
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3 key attitudes of scientific inquiry
Hypothesis: a statement predicting the outcome of a scientific study or describing the relationship among variables
Hypotheses must be testable and falsifiable
Operational definition: describes exactly what the variables are and how they are measured within context of the study
1. Develop a hypothesis
Experimental method: manipulate variables to dicover their effects
Descriptive method
Correlational method
Test the hypotheses in 3 ways
2. Perform a controlled test
3. Collect objective data
Mean平均数
Median中位数
Mode众数
Measures of central tendency
one of its tails is longer than the other
Positive skew: mean＞median
Negative skew: mean＜median
Skewed distribution
a measure of variability that indicates the average distance between scores and their mean
Mean+/- SD: 68%
Mean +/- 2SD: 95%
Standard deviation标准差
a numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables
Correlation coefficient
4. Analyze data and conduct results
5 steps of scientific method
Research
\"I-knew-it-all\
Hindsight bias
The tendency for a person to overestimate their abilities
Overconfidence bias
Order in random events
(can be minimized by operational definition)
An error due to the personal motives and expectations of viewer
Observer bias
Biases
Double-blind control
Techniques that eliminate bias
People rely on folk psychology (intuition and common sense)
eg. stimulus or cause
eg. response or effect
Purpose: to find out whether changes in one variable(X) cause changes in another variable(Y)
Investigators assemple 2 groups of subjects who are treated differently with regard to the independent variable
Confounding variable: 2 variables link in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their specific effects
Experimental group: consists of the subjects who receive special treatment in regard to the independent variable
Purpose of experimentation
Unintentional expectancy effect
when experimental participants change their behavior in the absence of any kind of experimental manipulation
Experimenters must be aware that participants change the way they behave simply because they are aware of being observed or tested
Placebo effect
Effects
a subset of a population that closely matches the overall characteristics of the populations
Representative sampling
every member of a population has an equal likelihood of participating in the experiment
Random sampling
Note: sampling bias exists when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn
Sampling
Descriptive method permits investigators to see only whether there is a link or association between variables of interest
The need for psychological science
variables go in same direction
positive correlation
variables go in opposite direction
negative correlation
the perception of a relationship where none exists
illusory correlation
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Correlations
a method where subjects are observed in their natural environment
Note: reactivity occurs when a subject's behavior is altered by the presence of an observer
a reactivity which individuals modify an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness
aka observer effect
Hawthorne reactivity
Naturalistic observation
an in-depth investigation of an individual or group
Case study
a research method where questions are asked to subjects who report their own answers
Survey
one group or subject is studied for an extended period of time to observe changes in long term
Longitudinal study
a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
Cross-sectional study
Study methods
Psychology chap 2
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