AP Psychology chap2
2021-09-21 17:16:41 6 举报AI智能生成
"Psychology Themes and Variations" Wayne Weiten
作者其他创作
大纲/内容
Research
Goal of psychology
develop explanations and mental process
Requirements
explanations need to be reliable and valid
Reliability: the consistency or dependability of behavioral data resulting from psychological testing or experimental research
Validity: information produced by research or testing accurately measures the psychological variable or quality
Theories: findings based on solid empirical studies
explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observation and predicts behaviors or events
3 key attitudes of scientific inquiry
curiosity, skepticism, humility
5 steps of scientific method
1. Develop a hypothesis
Hypothesis: a statement predicting the outcome of a scientific study or describing the relationship among variables
Hypotheses must be testable and falsifiable
Operational definition: describes exactly what the variables are and how they are measured within context of the study
2. Perform a controlled test
Test the hypotheses in 3 ways
Experimental method: manipulate variables to dicover their effects
Descriptive method
describes behaviors often by using case studies, surveys, or naturalistic observation
Correlational method
3. Collect objective data
4. Analyze data and conduct results
Measures of central tendency
Mean平均数
Median中位数
Mode众数
Skewed distribution
one of its tails is longer than the other
Positive skew: mean＞median
Negative skew: mean＜median
Standard deviation标准差
a measure of variability that indicates the average distance between scores and their mean
Mean+/- SD: 68%
Mean +/- 2SD: 95%
Correlation coefficient
a numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables
The need for psychological science
People rely on folk psychology (intuition and common sense)
Pseudoscience: statements, beliefs, or practices that claim to be scientific or factful but are not linked to scientific method
Biases
Hindsight bias
"I-knew-it-all" phenomenon, the tendency to believe, after learning about an outcome, that we foreseen it
Overconfidence bias
The tendency for a person to overestimate their abilities
Order in random events
Given random data, people look for order, for meaningful patterns
Observer bias
An error due to the personal motives and expectations of viewer
(can be minimized by operational definition)
Techniques that eliminate bias
Double-blind control
Purpose of experimentation
Purpose: to find out whether changes in one variable(X) cause changes in another variable(Y)
X: Independent variable, researcher changes
eg. stimulus or cause
Y: Dependent variable, the one being observed
eg. response or effect
Investigators assemple 2 groups of subjects who are treated differently with regard to the independent variable
Extraneous variable: other variables other than independent variable, might influence the dependent variable
Confounding variable: 2 variables link in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their specific effects
Experimental group: consists of the subjects who receive special treatment in regard to the independent variable
Effects
Unintentional expectancy effect
a researcher subtly communicates to the research participants the behaviors he or she expects to find, thereby producing desired reaction
Placebo effect
when experimental participants change their behavior in the absence of any kind of experimental manipulation
Experimenters must be aware that participants change the way they behave simply because they are aware of being observed or tested
Sampling
Representative sampling
a subset of a population that closely matches the overall characteristics of the populations
Random sampling
every member of a population has an equal likelihood of participating in the experiment
Note: sampling bias exists when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn
Descriptive method
Descriptive method permits investigators to see only whether there is a link or association between variables of interest
Correlations
positive correlation
variables go in same direction
negative correlation
variables go in opposite direction
illusory correlation
the perception of a relationship where none exists
Note: correlation does not imply causation, it only indicates that two sets of data are related in systematic way
Study methods
Naturalistic observation
a method where subjects are observed in their natural environment
Note: reactivity occurs when a subject's behavior is altered by the presence of an observer
Hawthorne reactivity
a reactivity which individuals modify an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness
aka observer effect
Case study
an in-depth investigation of an individual or group
eg. interviewing the subject, direct observation or participants, examination of records, and psychological testing
Survey
a research method where questions are asked to subjects who report their own answers
Longitudinal study
one group or subject is studied for an extended period of time to observe changes in long term
Cross-sectional study
a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
0 条评论
下一页
