Lecture 1: introduction
2022-06-03 16:08:55 8 举报AI智能生成
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careers related to horticulture
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relates to many sectors
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sectors linked to horticulture
Agriculture
Agronomy
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Foresty
Amenity
nursery
ornamental plant
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Commercial
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Advanced technology
vertical farm
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supply lettuce and microgrenns in green house
Food production sector
Field crop
Protected crop
pomology
Vegetable crops
who benefits from hort
Therapeutic Horticulture
Horticultural therapy
Lecture 2: Seed propagation
What is viable seed
internal conditions are right for germination
Conditions for germination
environment: water, light, oxigen, temperature
Hygiene: absence of pests and disease
storage conditions
no light
cool and dry
how growing substrate effect germination
type of soil
enviroment: laboratory 90%/field 65-70%
rain, drought, temperature
eaten by animals
quality of seed bed
moisture retention
soil not too compact
no waterlogging
sow at correct depth
check seed packet
depth of twice the seed diameter
seed purity
no weed seeds
no inert matter
no pests or diseases
90-95% purity
source supply known
why seed slow to germinate
old seed
badly filled (float)
poor after ripening
bad hygiene
seed dormancy
survival mechanism, protective strategy to stop at unsuitable times
stages of germination
take up water
produce radicle
produce plumule
cytoledon emerge
root hairs
first true leaves appear：independent of seed food reserved in endosperm
Lecture 3:Vegetative Propagation 1
reasons using vegetative propagation
some plants can only..do not produce viable seeds
orange, grapes
seedless friuts, tomatoes, grapes, bananas
citrus friuts
orange: more than one speices, pollinate each other, seed
plant don't produce seeds must be propagated vegetatively
fruit develops without fertilisation
pollination triggers fruit, ovules aborted with immature seeds
bulking up saleable plant
hundreds of cuttings yearly
as soon as plants have roots, can be sold
short juvenile stage
young trees within 1or2 year to be sold
fruit can be produced immediately
after juvenile stages
eg. apple tree grafting(wood from one tree to root from another)
remove viral diseases
never found at the shoot meristem tips
continuously rapidly dividing, high rate of metabolism
viruses cannot replicate
these cells are used to propogate certified virus-free plant
remove to vascular element(xylem and phloem)
some virus beneficial to plants
extreme environment -tolerance to drought, hot tem
increase the disirabiliy of a plant(variegated leaves)杂色叶子
homozygous&heterzygous mean
Homozygous: two of the same alleles, whether dominant or recessive
Heterzygous: one each of two different alleles
their relevance to propagation
Most plants:heterzygous, sexual makes characteristic loss
difference between seed propagation&vegetative propagation
sexual propagation
not all genetically identical, random mixing genes, diverse
asexual propagation
not from seed but vegerative tissue, indenpendent clone of parent
methods of vegetative propagation
clone
root cutting
stem cutting插条
evergreen, softwood, hardwood, semi-hardwood
leaf cutting
indoor plants, no axillary buds
only be used on plants forming adventitious buds
bulbs and corms球茎
tubers and rhizomes块茎 根茎
layering 压条
bending a stem down to the ground and pinning it there until it roots
division分生
herbaceous plants
grafting&budding 嫁接 出芽
apple tree and roses
micropropagation
all parts of plants
what is cone? relevance to propagation?
definition
genetically uniform material derived from a single individual, same genes
relevance
vegetatively propagated plants are clones of parent
almost all fruits are clones, propagated from cuttings
exist in nature
stolons 匍匐根
地上茎，在接触土壤的地方生根；最终，茎会分解，新的草莓植株是原母株的子株。
bulbs, corms and tubers
variation can occur
make difference in clones
through DNA mutations
DNA damage from UV light exposure
viral disease
lecture 4: Vegetative Propagation 2
describe cuttings and its types
definition
remove a plant part from the parent plant and that part regrows the lost tissues
characteristics
木本草本都可以用扦插的方法
totipotency 全能性
removed part needs a certain stimuli
type
root cutting根扦插
取自newer root growth
25-100mm long from roots that are 5-10mm diameter
during the dormant season, or throughout the growing season
cut straight through the part of the root closest to the stem
cut the other end slant
store for 3 weeks in moist rooting medium at 3-5度, warm bright location outdoors
upright in the growing medium
smaller plants, 10-25mm sections
12mm below the surface of rooting medium
stem cutting茎扦插
hardwood cutting硬木扦插 (most popular)
tissue become woody, plant is dormant
don't lose much sap or water
取自深秋到冬末，一年前生长的健康木材
easy to take, reliable, low cost, can be shipped safely over long distances
cut as a slant,75-300mm long, basal cut below a node
basal cut below a node(diagonal cut), topmost cut above a node(straight cut)
basal end in rooting hormone (eg. wisteria紫藤, liguatrum女贞)
straight cutting is commonly used in stem cutting
mallet & heel cutting 槌形/锤状插条 used for more difficult to root situation
heel cutting
small section of older wood is included at the base of the cutting
mallet cutting
during cutting
entire section of older stem wood is included
top straight/bottom diagonal
expose more stem area below the soil for rooting
bury vertically in moist sand
not freeze, remain cool
during storage
lower cut end form callus愈伤组织
callus formation shows that cuttings are ready to root
in spring
remove cutting from storage
plant in cold frame with morning sun exposure or filtered light
leave 25-50mm above ground
following spring
transplant cutting while dormant(1.5 year process)
planted into vermiculite(蛭石）instead of sand
vermiculite--a natural mineral forms small plate-like cystals that contain water
lightweight, chemically non-reactive,odourless, neutral PH of 7
improve soil aeration, prevent compaction
absorb excess moisture, prevent rot
semi-hardwood cutting半硬木扦插
取自woody broadleaved speices 木质阔叶树种，或八月部分成熟的落叶植物deciduous, in morning
取自生长速度变慢的时候
75-300mm in length
large leaves should be halved, basal cut below a node
damp plastic bag for transport
soft wood cuttings软木扦插
wood cell contains (lignin)木质素
取自当年生长的枝条，未木质化前（lignify)
late spring & early summer, morning when plants is fully swollen(下雨后，凉爽早晨）
keep moist
store in damp, sealed plastic container
pot up as soon as possible to avoid dehydration
eg. flowering shrubs 开花灌木
evergreen stem cutting常绿茎扦插
propagated when they are not fully dormant
root from semi-hardwood cuttings
broadleaf:
shrubs, eg. Mahonia十大功劳，Azalia杜鹃花
narrow leaf:
conifers,eg Juniperus杜松树 (75-100mm)
use terminal shoots of previous year's growth前一年生长的末梢
dip in fungicide杀菌素 and rooting hormone
root in 1:1 peat/sand or 1:1 peat/pertile
pertile珍珠岩is a volcanic rock, light weight material
absorb exterior moisture, not inside
make plants root become moisture
more porous, allow water to drain排水
more suitable addition to soils for plants don't require moist soil
root in mist, or warm bench and plastic
leaf cutting叶扦插
leaf blade or leaf with petiole
取自vigorously growing plant,close to stem
剪掉1/4 of the leaf, adding rooting hormone
插入rooting medium, 1/3 leaf below the surface
产生many new small plants from the base of its leaf
eg. African violet leaves
Begonia秋海棠 divided into segments, contain a major vein
succulent plants肉质植物, sedum and jade
leaf bud cutting叶芽扦插
used when cutting material is limited
used when space is limited
every node on a stem
trailing plants蔓生植物. eg, Ivy, Clematis, Camellia, Rhododendron, Rubber plant, Mahonia
cutting consis of
a leaf blade
petiole/stalk
a short piece of stem with attached axillary bud
essential to become a new plant
located in the axil of the leaf stalk & stem
placed in the growing medium with the bud covered about 2cm/leaf exposed to photosynthesis
characteristic of a stock plant砧木
definition of stock plant
are the parent plants used in asexual propagation
adventitious roots
growing in an unsual anatomical position
usually called callus forms at the cut
is an unorganized and undifferentiated mass of actively dividing cells（无组织，无差异的大量活跃分生细胞）
these cells eventually form roots known as adventitious roots
nodes, internodes
node:
a point on a stem where any new growth arises;
a new flower, leaf, branch take place
important healing, structural support, biological processes take place
internode:
the lengths of stem between nodes that transport water, hormones and food from node to node
why they are important
cut immediately below a node, this area will produce roots when pushed to soil
cutting needs at least one bud and node above the soil line, where new stem and branch growth occur
division
species
spring flowering plants in summer after flowering
clump forming herbaceous perennials丛生多年生草本植物
summer flowering plants in spring or autumn
ornamental grasses
some houseplants
every 2-3 years to maintain health and vigour
Agapanthus龙舌兰
Crocosmia 藏红花
Primula 报春花
process
use fork, shake off excess soil roots are viable
plants that produce individual plantlets can be picked out
small plants pulled apart to produce small clumps for replanting
larger perennials require two garden forks to be inserted into crown back-to-back and 撬开，松开将根块分成部分
produce clumps containing 3-4 healthy roots
从生多年生植物应该每隔几年分生一次，以保持活力；若不然，中心开始死亡
Lecture 6: Other propagation Techniques
layer/layering
layer is the rooted stem following detachment from the parent plant
rooting medium: peat, sand or soil
provide ventilation and constant supply of moisture
layering methods
tip layering
tips grows downward at first, then bends sharply and grows upward
recurved tip--a new plant, bend--root
dig a hole 7-10cm deep, pin or wire固定
深秋或早春去除tip layer from parent
attached to new plants and 移植 in new location
eg. grapes, trailing blackberries
naturally tip layers: honeysuckle
stem layering茎压条
bending a low growing, flexible stem (branches) vertical to the ground
cover part of it with soil, leave 15-30cm above the soil
sharp bend induce rooting,wounding the lower side of the bent branch can also help
wounding creates a root promoting stimulus
eg. climbing roses, rhododendron, boxwood, honeysuckle
jasmonic acid茉莉酸, reactive oxygen, polyphenols多酚, hydrogen sulfide硫化氧 are required to promote adventitious rooting
trench layering开沟压条
compound or serpentine layering复合或蛇形压条
单个茎可形成多个layers
alternately cover and expose sections of stems
each section have at least one node with a bud exposed and one node with a bud covered with soil
lightly wound the lower side of each stem to be pinned underground to promote rooting
vine-like growth藤蔓状生长eg. heart-leaf philodendron心叶连翘, wisteria紫藤
air layering
used for plants cannot be bent down to the soil
large, overgrown house plants/lose most of their lower leaves
rubber plant橡胶植物, croton巴豆
woody ornamentals
camellia, magnolia, holly
process
in the 春天/中晚夏, shoots produced on previous season
woody plants
choose area below a node
将该node上下7-10cm的小枝叶去掉
在距离叶尖30cm的茎部进行
单子叶植物or双子叶植物
monocot
•茎三分之一的部分向上切3-4 cm。
用toothpick将切口撑开
用潮湿的moss覆盖伤口，remove excess moisture
用塑料包裹moss, 拉紧两端，保持里头水分，防止外界水进入
不能暴露在阳光下
dicot
同上
2.5 cm ring of bark is removed from the stem树皮环被割下
leaving the inner woody tissue exposed
刮去新生的ring， 阻止cambium tissue生长
生根培养基充满根时，隔断在培养基下的茎，移植盆栽
需要阴凉和水分
mound layering 土墩压条
used for heavy-stemmed, closely branched, woody shrubs that grow near to the ground
stem are far too rigid to bend down to the soil
species
fruiting shrubs
currants, gooseberries
rootstock of tree fruits
apple rootstocks
ornamental plants
spirea绣线菊，daphne瑞香
process
first year, planted in spring
by autumn, several branches have grown and the roots develop further
mound layering begins in the second year
early spring2th, main stem is cut back to 3cm above ground, dormant buds produce new shoots
autumn, roots are well formed
each rooted stem has formed an individual plant
late winter, early spring 3th, remove layers
pros and cons of micropropagation
definition
aseptin tissue culture because tiny fragments of tissue are removed from plant meristems(茎间顶端）
advantages
shorter time with large number
at any time
virus/disease elimination
easy to propagate
good for saving endangered plants
种质资源被保护
商业上只需要一种性别
limitations
high cost
great skills in handling
may be genetic instability
contamination
hard to adjust glasshouse conditions
process of micropropagation
生长与分化取决于培养基
生长在控制室内
足够大时，将它从容器中取出，放入堆肥
放入密封容器，不会水分丢失，不会有足够厚的角质层cuticle layer
从容器中取出后，立刻放入干燥环境中
角质层变厚，湿度降低，正常生长
in which process do not survive
large enough they are removed from containers and potted on into compost
reason: cuticle由角质和蜡组成，具有防止水分流失的功能，由于生长在密封容器中的植物不会遭受水分流失，因此变得不够厚
reason:一旦置入干燥环境，角质会变厚。但该转变时期难以控制，可能植物会寄
technique of budding
–将接穗(scion)上的单个芽(bud)放在另一株植物上
7月/8月初进行
T-bud是最常见的形式
锋利的无菌刀(sterile knife)
不要接触芽或砧木的内部组织或形成层 避免污染
bud固定好了，被包裹
Lecture 5: Plant Growth
what factors impact on plant growth
water
transpiration
growth
mineral uptake
hydration补水
keep cool, chemical reaction
light
photosynthesis
convert light, carbon dioxide and water into energy in the form of carbohydrates
viable light carried by photons光子, a tiny units of energy
plant growth influence by quality and quantity of light
quality: intensity of light, plant's rate
quantity: wavelength within the electromagnetic spectrum, (nanometer)
photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) 光合有效辐射400-700nm
outdoor light not good, indoors, select lamp bulbs
LEDs, light emitting diodes
light spectrum can be changed to different wavelength
temperature
affect process controleled by enzymes
phoyosynthesis
respiration
has the optimum temperature
outdoors, prefer environment close to where they originated
from tropical region will die in freezing weather because水结冰， 细胞膨胀破裂
from a cold region more consistent to 细胞膨胀
produce anti-freeze抗冻剂 in cells to send the water out into the intercellular spaces
freeze in the intercellular space, so cell will not burst, plant will survive
air
controlled by ventilation 通风
allow fresh air in without losing much heat
underground, air be limited
water replace oxygen in soil pores
cannot respiration
heavily compacted soil
co2 remain in soil, respiration slower
nutrients
provided by
soil
in commercial horticulture, by soil to plants in pots
include
macro elements
N, P, K, Ca, S, Mg
micro elements
Fe, B, Mn, Zn
one of the best nutrient
compost堆肥
organic, recycled green waste
overfeeding with fertilisers produces soft sappy growth软腐病
space to grow
without space
face excessive competition(water, light)
used in sowing
against its neighbor but not shade it
check for pests and disease, water irrigation
time
growing process
germination
seedling
growth, development
flowering
fruiting
used in commercial pratices(correct time to harvest)
indoor and outdoor difference in growth
同上
how can these factors be influenced by growers
water properly and timely
aviod plants death
use LEDs or light emitting diodes
initiating flowering
control ventilation
allow fresh air in without losing too much heat
mix soil in different proportions
loosen the soil
nutrients provided
leave space between plant rows
how do plants get minerals they need
plants only make sugars via photosynthesis
must absorb minerals
dissolved in water, through their roots absorb
water&minerals move up through the plant
get rid of internal water through stomata
more water enter from the roots, bringing in more minerals
what factors of soil impact on plant growth
soil composition
rock particles&minerals
organic matter from dead plants&animals
living organisms in soil
air
water
soil texture
particle size(determine soil's drainage and nutrient holding capacity)
Lecture 11: Shrub Selection
discuss some of major functions and uses
function
可以是常绿，也可以是落叶
为花园增添形状，为动物提供庇护和食物来源
灌木是落叶或常绿木本植物,赋予秋天颜色
use
基础种植
隐私边界
植物样本
季节性不同结构
作为景观
benefits
去除空气中的二氧化碳并释放氧气
稳定土壤
过滤环境中的空气和水传播污染
阻挡冬季风
遮蔽空调机组,提供内部遮阳，减少能源使用
炎热地区对阳光热量的吸收
提供隐私
标记/定义边界
标记/定义边界
软化坚硬景观的边缘pools
开花灌木吸引蜜蜂、蝴蝶和其他传粉昆虫、鸟类，甚至鹿等哺乳动物。
低矮的灌木可以提供地面覆盖物，消除杂草，并且比草需要更少的维护。
植物灌木为我们提供水果和浆果
快速生长的灌木可以迅速改变裸露或稀疏种植的花园
芳香的灌木 可以为花园或其他室外空间提供色彩和散发自然气味。
一些灌木会吸引其他感官，如声音和触觉
一些灌木是理想的样本植物
影响shrub选择的因素
temperature
温带地区temperate region, 种植灌木的最佳时间与种植树木的最佳时间相同。
season
裸根bare-root和根球root-balled灌木 仅在秋季和冬季可用,若非如此，则侧种heeled in
requirement
讨论landscape scheme
structure of scheme
主干backbone–是“永久特征
用框架填充方案color, texture, interest over 4 seasons
考虑场地的限制，例如高pH值、靠近大海、树荫等
考虑成熟时的大小(不要灌木长得太大，需要不断修剪)
一起种植大小相似、生长速度相似的灌木
为草本植物留出空间，以备影响
Climbers and Wall Shrubs
both
攀缘植物和墙壁灌木覆盖墙壁、栅栏，遮阳
蜡质树叶,叶卷起
银色,绒毛
直立/线性形式
寿命短但能够恢复
攀缘植物
占用很少的地面空间，是小型花园的绝佳选择
eg. clematis, rose, wisteria紫藤 and honeysuckle.
墙壁灌木
需要更多的地面空间
可以是常绿的或落叶的，沿着墙壁向上或穿过墙壁
eg. pyracantha火棘, cotoneaster栒子 and ceanothus海棠
exposed coastal sites
生存的灌木非常有限
可以通过种植防护带增加种植机会防护林shelter belt
耐寒灌木的特征包括灰色或银色的叶子。
修复灌木renovate shrub
被忽视的、杂草丛生的灌木可以通过大幅度修剪来修复
被忽视的、杂草丛生的灌木可以通过大幅度修剪来修复
硬修剪hard pruning通常会刺激新的生长，但会导致一些人在一两年内失去花朵。
deciduous
通常在11月和3月之间,春秋
evergreen
如果它们在春天开花，就要等到开花后
two ways
renovated in one year: 强健的灌木
a staged renovation:未知灌木
types of renovations
complete revovation整修
将所有茎从地面上砍下10-20cm
或在灌木中砍下20-45cm
在春季，用饲料和覆盖物继续进行这种艰难的修剪
subsequent thinning以选择最强壮、位置最佳的嫩枝
Staggered renovation错层修整
修剪两到三年，保持自然形状
第1年-将死亡、受损、患病、交叉和摩擦的嫩枝移到地面，目的是移除多达一半的灌木。将剩下的老茎减半，形成健壮的侧芽side shoot或健康的朝外芽outward-facing bud.
第2年-如果新枝过多，则将其削去，并修剪或缩短剩余的老枝
第3年-移除所有剩余的旧茎。在随后的几年里，恢复到正常的修剪制度。
lecture 12:Herbaceous Plants
室外空间草本植物的选择应考虑哪些因素
目的：动物栖息地，保护水质，增加生物多样性，尽量减少维护，提高财产价值
有助于实现可持续性的总体目标
water
soil type
PH
alkaline
acid
Temperature
Light requirements
Nutrients
Pests and diseases
讨论如何使用bulbs
Spring flowering春季开花
秋季种植,冬季耐寒
Bring colour to the landscape before most other plants
Summer flowering夏季开花
不耐寒，最后一次霜冻后种植（3-5月）
用于grouping，作为specimens，用于切花
大多数球茎适合容器种植
Bulb Mass Planting 鳞茎大规模种植
大量种植一个品种或颜色的鳞茎 将具有更大的视觉冲击力，提供统一的颜色和纹理
鳞茎更容易护理，培养要求相同，叶片同时成熟
不建议在树木或灌木丛周围单排或单圈。大规模种植时看起来更好。植物在自然界中不是以一条直线生长，而是以不规则的团块生长。
Grouping Bulbs 分组鳞茎
春季鳞茎（tulips or daffodils），一组中一个品种的植株>12株。bulbs越多，影响越大。
Smaller bulbs, groups > 50 for impact.
较小的bulbs需要近距离观察，以便沿着小路、天井或入口patios or entry种植。
大多数夏季开花的鳞茎开花较大，因此建议在同一品种中至少种植3~6个鳞茎。
在可持续的景观设计中使用草本植物
Designing with Annuals
评估种植区域。测量、了解全天的阳光和阴影模
在严格一年生植物的苗床上——坚持大量种植几种类型的植物，而不是所有植物
并非所有植物都需要开花。叶子植物添加颜色和纹理作为填充物或焦点
Colour combinations can complement, contrast or match互补、对比或匹配
•重复颜色和形状
Biennials in the Garden
二年生植物比多年生或一年生植物少，许多是蔬菜类型
第一年的叶子，利用阳光和储存能量为第二年开花、播种和死亡
通常在春末夏初播种
eg.Beets, Brussels sprouts芽甘蓝, Cabbage, Canterbury bells风铃草
Perennial Garden Design
考虑暴露（全日照、部分日照、阴凉）、土壤类型、排水和风模式，并相应地选择植物
开始挖掘之前，先了解全局并进行任何调整。
注意植物间距离
种植的距离越近，可以产生郁郁葱葱的茂盛, 完整的花柱
变得太过拥挤，可能会导致更多的修剪或移植维护
Combine early-season flowering with mid- and late-season flowering旱季开花与中、晚季开花相结合 for a long-lasting display.
加入一年生植物，以获得额外的夏季花朵。
当组合不同的植物类型时，应考虑哪些因素？
在多年生植物床上种植一年生植物
记住一年生植物和多年生植物的最终大小，不互相影响生长
将一年生植物与多年生植物混合，以获得额外的花朵
Lecture 7: Pomology
purpose of training整形
引导树木生长到所需的形状
包括initial pruning，有选择地删除不需要的分支
通过选择branching network将最终框架设置为所需形状
purpose of pruning修剪
修剪是移除树的一部分以保持所需的树结构
每年定期发生，以维持所需的框架
去除多余的生长
整形架构，修建调整。最好使用整形
什么是休眠期修剪 dormant pruning
一个充满活力的过程矮化过程
晚冬进行，避免冷害/树叶完全落下后，已休眠
先修剪老树，更耐寒
幼树因不抗寒可能受伤害
biennial bearing二年生结果
冬季每年定期修剪可诱导二年生结果
但第二年结的果较少，利用自身能量取代修建掉的木材
第一年产量高，第二年产量低
purpose of summer pruning
减少了树木生产食物的部分（叶） 并导致树木生长减少
并不是一个让人精神振奋的过程，因为修剪树叶会消耗树木的活力，而树叶通过光合作用提供食物。
应仅限于去除当前季节直立（upright growth)和旺盛的生长
upright growth do not produce fruit
去除生长过剩部分，增加生长活力
purpose of winter pruning
一个充满活力（invigorating）的过程，可以解决二年生结果的问题。
树上长满杂草，可选择2-3个冬天修剪，鼓励再生
鼓励新梢的生长
difference between a florican(花果枝） and a primocane（初年茎）
primocane初年茎
第一年夏天，在primocane顶端产果
第二年夏天，沿着floricane上结果
floricane花果枝
most blackberries and raspberries
第二年夏天才结果，沿着cane 藤蔓
lecture 8: Roots and Rootstocks
why graft onto a rootstock?
果树太大，无法收获果实。砧木更容易管理大小
因为砧木有矮化树木和大型树木的作用
what considerations should be mader regarding graft unions
相似的diameter 砧木rootstock与scion接穗
如果接穗长得比砧木快，接穗要更窄
比较apple和pear的rootstock
apple
总是使用自己品种的砧木，减少质量差异
pear
被嫁接到quince RS
更加矮化
更早熟
树更小，结果更早
影响root function的因素
root function
feed
吸收水分和无机养分（与一些真菌互利共生，以帮助吸收矿物质（真菌帮助吸收矿物质，植物为真菌提供碳水化合物））
anchor
将植物锚固在地面上（根系有助于防止土壤侵蚀）
store
储存食物和营养素
factors and how
soil type
土壤强度和物理条件 可以对根系生长施加主要限制
environmental conditions
温度、湿度等。在较冷的天气下，生长速度会减慢
PH
影响营养素的可用性,最适pH值在5.5至7.5之间
phosphorus 低于5.6，略高于8不可用，高于9可用
极酸性土壤释放Al
有毒性，不利于植物生长
制定营养吸收策略，同时避免毒性。
herbicide and pesiticide
被树吸收后，土壤里的残留量
compaction
machinery or ploughing机械或犁耕导致
限制根部渗透和扩散。
空气空间被挤出，限制了空气和水的供应
限制呼吸。没有氧气，根系会进行厌氧呼吸，产生更少的能量，并产生有毒的副产品，开始杀死细胞。
soil earation(co2 and o2 content)
O2是呼吸的主产品，不能进入被淹没的孔隙空间
二氧化碳是呼吸的副产品，从根部扩散出去。在压实或淹没的土壤中，它会积聚起来，植物停止呼吸。
genetic of root
对病原体、微生物和昆虫的抗性
对不同环境的耐受性
对不同土壤类型的耐受性
养分吸收与平衡
嫁接与接穗的相容性
水果质量和产量效率
季节：休眠或活跃
文化实践：在施工和活动期间，如修剪、限制压实
lecture 10: Tree Management
shape and habit 跟树的关系
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